The highlighted designer is Yohji Yamamoto. Chapter is on Unity. Here we define variety, harmony, and the Gestalt Principles. Unity is discussed in relation to the garment, as well as to mass fashion. Designer influences include ideals of beauty and sources of inspiration.
This chapter culminates with guidelines for maintaining unity across a group of fashions. Jeanne Lanvin is the final designer profiled. Fashion by Design is written and presented with admiration for the great fashion designers who brought artistic inspiration to industry.
They added beauty to our world, stimulated our intellect, and tantalized our creativity. We are forever in their debt! However, I could only complete the task with the support and ideas of my colleagues at Marymount University: Dr. Pamela Stoessell, professor of fine and applied arts; Annette Ames, associate professor of fine and applied arts; the design expert and painter Judy Bass, professor of fine and applied arts; and Dr.
Bridget May, furniture and interiors historian and professor of interior design. I also thank Dr. Hyun Jung for sharing her doctoral research at Hong-Ik University on fashion design and light.
Jung has since taught at Texas Tech University. Winge, PhD, Indiana University, for their contemplative feedback. The team at Fairchild Books truly brought Fashion by Design to fruition. My gratitude goes to Robert Phelps, development editor, my mentor and a gifted writer; Elizabeth Greenberg, photo editor and fashion historian ; Carolyn Eckert, creative director; Jennifer Crane, editorial development director; Ginger Hillman, production director; Jessica Rozler, production editor; Joanne Slike, copyeditor, Noah Schwartzberg, ancillaries editor; and the incomparable executive editor Olga Kontzias, who embodies the vision of Fairchild Books.
Finally, I thank my family for their investment of a laptop in my efforts and their wonderful support: my sister, Dr.
Donna Greenberg of Harvard Medical School and Massachusetts General Hospital, and my daughters Amy Rosenthal, Lindsey Rosenthal, and Samantha Rosenthal, who also generously lent both writing advice and technological expertise on command. Special love and appreciation go to my husband, Jamie Ellinwood, for all of his patience and advocacy along this journey.
To examine the perception of color as light and as pigment To describe the systems of color that predict the success with which colored pigments combine, especially the Standard Color Wheel To identify color combinations or schemes To define color temperature and explain the optical or environmental factors that affect color interaction To explain how value affects perception.
It attracts the shoppers eyes as they enter a store and directs their path to the fixture or display unit that features it, even though only the sleeve and side of the garment may be apparent. A seemingly infinite number of colors are available to the fashion designer. These originate in nature, as the American painter Georgia OKeeffe demonstrated through her iconic flowers, skulls, and landscapes. The perception of color is actually more complex than one might presume.
It is both an external occurrence and an internal sensation. The traditional explanation of color refers to the manner in which the sensation of light is transmitted to the brain through the eye, originating from electromagnetic waves that radiate from a light source and reflect on a surface.
Artists, designers, and chemists are more concerned with color in dyes and pigments. Moreover, color has the potential to influence mood and carry cultural significance. This chapter focuses on theories regarding color and its relationship to light and to pigment, as well as color temperature and the ways in which colors interact with each other. We will examine the variables that influence the perception of color and its value, which refers to the degree of its lightness or darkness.
In Chapter , Color and Industry, we will look at the fashion and textile industries, the psychological influence of color, and its cultural significance. Color is perceived in the presence of light. That is evident from the experience of moving about the bedroom in the middle of the night. Edges of forms may present themselves in the darkness, but the colors of the blanket or bedside lamp do not. When light is strong, colors appear more intense, like they are under the sunlight in a tropical climate.
A rainbow organizes its colors in a particular order or spectrum, including red, orange, yellow, green, blue, blue-violet, and violet. Indigo is often the term used for blueviolet in the spectrum. Georgia OKeeffe is considered a master colorist as demonstrated in her iconic flower paintings such as Red Amaryllis The recognition of this order is credited to the physicist and mathematician Sir Isaac Newton and the experiments he conducted in the seventeenth century.
Newton placed a glass prism in front of a ray of daylight as it entered a darkened room. The prism caused the white light to bend, or refract, breaking it down into the spectrum of colors described above. Each of these is thought to distinguish itself to the human eye, because of a different range of wavelengths of radiant energy.
Hence, it is considered the visible spectrum. A wavelength is the distance between the crests in a wave of energy. Red, for instance, has the longest distance in wavelengths, while violet has the shortest. Sir Isaac Newton discovered that a glass prism enables a light ray to break into the visible spectrum. Both physicists and artists have developed theories regarding the combination of colors in light.
These theories are particularly relevant to individuals who work as lighting designers, videographers, and Web site designers. They are also meaningful to theater costumers, whose work is seen under lighting, and to producers of fashion shows, for the same reason. They understand that the dynamic of working with colored light rays is called additive color.
That means the more they are mixed with other colors, the lighter they become. The basic or primary colors of light, those that cannot be mixed by combining any other colors, are red, green, and blue. That is also from where the computer screens term RGB originates. When combined together in equal amounts, the result is white light. However, when these colors of light overlap in varying amounts, other interesting colors form, and these are called secondary colors.
The overlapping of red and blue creates magenta. Red and green make yellow, while green and blue produce cyan. When the primary colors of lightred, green, and blue intersect, they create the secondary colors of magenta, yellow, and cyan. All of these additive primaries create white light. White light contains all colors of the visible spectrum in equal amounts. When it hits a surface, two possible actions result. Either it is reflected in sharp, white highlights, which the fashion designer experiences with the use of sequins, beads, satin, or vinyl.
The layperson sees it when observing the dance of sunlight on water. In most other scenarios, some of the white light penetrates the surface of an object, and it absorbs all of the wavelengths except one. That is the color that is perceived when the unabsorbed wavelength is reflected to the viewers eye. The surface of a Red Delicious apple, for instance, absorbs all wavelengths except those that cause the sensation of red.
An object with no pigmentation appears white. When a surface absorbs almost all of the wavelengths, and few are reflected, the object looks black. The process of experiencing these sensations through reflected light is called subtractive color. When creating fashion, the designer is primarily concerned with the color s reflected to the eye or the pigment or dye of the fabric. Theories about pigments originate from a desire to organize colors and their relationships in order to predict and maximize their visual effects.
Consider all of the individuals to whom that is importantpainters, printmakers, jewelers, sculptors, illustrators, textile designers, floral designers, architects, landscape architects, interior designers, visual merchandisers, as well as fashion designers. Before we survey these theories, lets look at a few color terms. Hue is the general term or family name of a color, which is determined by its wavelength on the light spectrum or its corresponding sensation based on its location on the organizational chart called the color wheel.
A description of color wheels follows this listing of color terminology. Value is the darkness or lightness of a hue.
This refers to the lightest form of the hue, gained by adding white to it, the darkest form, which results from adding black, and all of the scale in between. Adding white to the hue produces its tint.
Adding black creates its shade. Intensity or saturation refers to the range of brightness to dullness of a hue. Colors in their purest, most brilliant state are at maximum saturation. To the extent they are grayed means they are in low saturation. Chroma is synonymous with saturation, a measure of a hues purity or brilliance.
A surface or object with an identifiable hue is described as chromatic. Those without it, such as white, gray, or black, are achromatic.
The term is also used for surfaces that are transparent but is more often interchangeable with the word neutral. Neutrals have special significance to the fashion designer.
In not having hue, neutrals. As a result, they are prized for their versatility in a wardrobe, and they are considered appropriate for a range of occasions. Neutrals are also discussed in Chapter , Color and Industry. As previously mentioned, primary colors are those that cannot be mixed by any others. In any method of color organization, they combine to form secondary colors, which, in turn, combine with one another to produce tertiary colors.
In addition to the work of Sir Isaac Newton, theories about color date back to the Greek philosophers and to the Renaissance artist and scientist Leonardo da Vinci. Many other theories developed from the eighteenth century to the present.
One of these is the system of color that is the most relevant for fashion design. Several fashion books refer to it as the standard color wheel. Most students are introduced to it at the elementary level of education, so it is familiar. Bear in mind that it is built on the reasoning of several theorists; that is why it is so user-friendly and reliable.
Sir David Brewster , an English physicist who was the inventor of the kaleidoscope, laid the groundwork for the system while examining the work of Newton.
He believed that the light spectrum was actually composed of three individual types of lightred, blue, and yellowthat he called primary colors.
Although this belief was not held in high regard, Brewster is credited with the perception that three properly chosen colors of light, when mixed in careful proportions, are all that are necessary to reproduce all color sensation.
German painter Phillip Otto Runge wrote a book on his theory of color for pigments, which organized hues around what he identified as three primary colors: red, blue, and yellow. He arranged them in the form of a sphere, leading to the first three-dimensional color model.
Louis Prang knew color from other perspectives. As a boy, he learned to dye fabric. When he migrated from Germany to the United States, he worked as a wood engraver, lithographer, color printer, and publisher.
He is even acknowledged as the originator of the Christmas card. Prang wrote extensively on color, and his teachings had a profound effect on American art education.
His color wheel featured hues, which included primary, secondary, and intermediate colors, along with their shades and tints. Johannes Itten, the painter and originator of the preliminary course at the Bauhaus who was discussed in Chapter , taught both color and design and published books on color.
He created a star of color for his preliminary. It too encompassed colors around the three primary colors of red, blue, and yellow. From this organization evolved Ittens wheel, in which he placed yellow at the top, because it is the brightest hue and the closest to white light. In the center, Itten placed a triangle featuring the primary colors and surrounded by the secondary colors of green, violet, and orange. It is clear that the Standard Color Wheel resulted from many theorists and applications.
One other color wheel, sometimes referred to as the Process or Light Wheel, is a twenty-first-century invention that is not directly relevant to fashion. It is a -hue color wheel that features the primary colors of red, green, and blue, like the primary light colors. The secondary colors are magenta, cyan, and yellow.
This system is relevant for the computer applications used in the work of the graphic designer. There is one other color system to consider: the Munsell Wheel or color tree, named for professor and artist Albert Munsell. Munsell attempted to integrate hues with intervals of values. For that the system is noteworthy. Munsell featured five principal colors that he based on natureyellow, red, green, blue, and purple. These choices were also based on the color interaction of afterimage, which is discussed later in this chapter.
Munsell organized the color wheel into a tree form where intervals of value, measuring lightness and darkness, are placed along the trunk or vertical axis. Any color along the trunk is a neutral, while the branches or horizontal intervals measure the saturation of a hue. That places the purest. Johannes Ittens Color Wheel12 colors around the primary colors of red, blue, and yellowis basically the Standard Color Wheel used today.
Note the primary and secondary colors featured in the center. This system is used for dye manufacturing for yarn and fabric coloration, as well as industry production for interior design and cosmetics. The ingenious function of a color system is that it offers a guide for discovering the color combinations, schemes, or relationships that should have the greatest visual impact.
The Standard Color Wheel does that for the fashion designer. The placement of a hue on the color wheel indicates the most workable color schemes. The fashion design student should remember, however, that each hue on the color wheel represents a color family, and the success of that hue in combination with any other is true for any shade, tint, or intensity of it. The dynamics of blue, in the purity of the way in which it is perceived on the Standard Color Wheel, denotes the same presumptions for robins egg blue, deck blue, or navy blue.
The simplest is the monochromatic color scheme, where a garment design rests on one hue. It might be the color of the entire garment, or one part of it, or the dominant color of a pattern, where the others are achromatic or neutral. Or the design may combine different values of the same hue.
One predominant color may seem boring, but the consumer finds it easy to wear. The next simplest is called tone on tone and involves two hues that lie next to each other on the color wheel. These are harmonious because they have a portion of the same hue in common. The Munsell Color Wheel, or Tree, integrates five principle hues with intervals of values.
Adjacent hues on the color wheel create an analogous color scheme. Usually there are three hues, but sometimes as many as five. Often the combination is recognized in nature. Yellow, yellow-orange, orange, and red-orange simulate the imagery of autumn leaves or fire. A complementary color scheme contains two hues that are opposites on the color wheel. Of these, the most familiar are red and green, because they are often featured in Christmas decorations. They are especially effective for that purpose because opposites intensify each other when placed in proximity.
On the contrary, red and green in their purest forms may seem overbearing for clothing, especially in the case where one color lies above the waist and the other below. The lesson, then, is to use them in smaller doses or in varying tints, shades, or intensities.
There is an interesting result when opposite pigments are combined, as in the case of paint. In equal doses, they result in gray, so adding an opposite hue in smaller degrees can make a color more grayed. In actual practice, the paint combination may look more like brown or taupe. When a designer is illustrating a garment design, the performance of color in paint, pencils, pastels, or markers is important. However, in a garment, the question of combining colors comes up when two different-colored yarns are used that are woven or knitted in the same fabric structure.
Red and green yarns used equally in the same structure would construct a gray fabric. Cultivating complementary colors in a design brings a wider range of color possibilities than those that result from adjacent hues.
A split complementary color scheme uses one hue and the two on either side of its complement. More variation occurs from using tints, shades, and intensities of these hues. A double complementary scheme consists of two colors on either side of a hue and the two on either side of its complement. A color scheme featuring three hues equidistant on the color wheel is a triad. The most familiar triadic color scheme includes the three primary colorsred, blue, and yellow.
They were beloved by the Bauhaus in the s. They are often chosen for the toys, environments, and clothing for young children. They are also reminiscent of the circus.
The final color scheme in the list is known either as a tetrad or a double split-complement. It refers to four colors that are equidistant on the color wheel. The layout of the combination forms a rectangle. This is the most complex of all the color relationships. It works more successfully if the colors are not used in equal proportions. Selecting a color scheme or story is an important step in the creation of any successful art or design product.
The painter Claude Monet and his. At the time, there was continuing research in optics and the theory of complementary colors was new. They reasoned that shadows were not black but had color, so they employed a colors complement for them, because the complement offered the contrast that best featured a colors brightness.
Conversely, the. In The Greenhouse, by Auguste Renoir, the color palette omits black and employs complementary colors to provide contrast. The color scheme in Two Women from Tahiti by Paul Gauguin is high-toned and packed with emotion. The hightoned colors were meant to reflect emotion, rather than reality.
Les Fauves is French for the wild beasts. The Standard Color Wheel organizes hues by color temperature, another valuable indicator for color choice. Color temperature is experienced from interaction with nature.
Colors that are warmthose that are yellowbased, oranges and reds to violetsoccupy half of the color wheel and convey associations with the sun or fire. When hit with light, they actually feel warmer. Those that occupy the opposite side of the color wheel, blues and greens, are cool, summoning thoughts of sky, grass, foliage, and water.
These visually recede by comparison to the warm hues. All designers develop a sensitivity for, knowledge of, and ability to manipulate color. The Italian fashion designer Roberto Capucci has been a master of both color and form. The experience of working with color teaches that its final form is not always predictable.
That is because there are both environmental and optical factors that affect the perception of it. A stylist, as a result, may try dif-.
A painter sometimes mixes a color on the palette only to find it looks different on the canvas. Simultaneous contrast means that colors look different depending on what other colors are placed in proximity. Josef Albers painting series Homage to the Square explores the visual effects of simultaneous contrast. One example of this phenomenon is called simultaneous contrast. In short, this means that a color looks different when placed in proximity to another color. This is the reason, for example, that complementary colors appear to intensify one another.
Their similarities decrease and their dissimilarities increase. This observation is credited originally to the French chemist Michel Eugne Chevreul , the director of the dye house for Gobelins tapestries in Paris during the early nineteenth century.
He was asked to determine why some of the colors appeared differently in the Gobelins tapestries. With his expertise in dyestuffs and tints, he determined that the colors looked different because of the colors they were placed beside.
The timing was critical, because that knowledge inspired both the Impressionist and Post-Impressionist painters to think carefully about what color brushstrokes were placed in proximity. The painter Josef Albers experimented with this concept in a series of paintings entitled Homage to the Square, in which he placed varying hues within square formats.
Roberto Capuccis unique sculptural evening gown from his autumnwinter collection of features a monochromatic color scheme. Capucci chose a complementary color combination for this evening gown from the autumnwinter collection of Capucci uses cool and warm colors on opposite sides of the fabric structures to add dimension to his design.
The gown was designed in Nevertheless, he preferred to call himself a researcher. He was born in Rome in and obtained an education at the Academy of Fine Arts. He wanted to be a set designer, costume designer, or an architect, but instead developed a life as a couturir. He presented his first collections in Florence in and opened a Paris salon in. It was not long before Capucci discovered that he preferred freedom from the ruling fashion trends and the demands of the fashion calendar.
Unlike his contemporaries, he eventually delivered one collection annually in different towns and mostly in museums. A collection was the product of his research. That was appropriate, because his concept of haute couture was as an art form, inspired by the fashions of the s. He thought of fashion as architecture within which the body inhabits. He measured the success of each design by the elements of line, texture, volume, and color, without forgetting their relationship to the human figure.
He gained inspiration from his garden, which instilled in him a sense of balance, proportion, harmony, and color. For one collection he prepared as many as , sketches, drawn in black and white, so his selections were made without the benefit of color.
Ironically, the choice of color contributed to his sense of perfection. He might reproduce up to shades of one color for a particular dress. That dress might require four months of work and yards of fabric. His architectural or sculptural dresses were geometric in feeling. The linear and planar qualities referred to crystalline structures, while the curvilinear volumes resembled floral forms.
He manipulated fabrics with pleating or cut them into mosaics. A botanist might see the designs as flowers, while a mathematician would appreciate their geometry. A historian would identify them as soft suits of armor, but a painter would admire his choice of color. The colors were the result of his inspirations, which ranged from the flight of a colorful bird during an African safari to the simple peeling of an orange.
In some instances, Capucci would limit himself to just black and white, so the absence of color would emphasize line and space. More typically, his color choices were described as phantasmagoric or iridescent.
In one garment he would include the green of an emerald, the green of a new leaf, the green of the sea, the green of an apple, and the green of a glass bottle. Or he would pair a cool color with a warm one, always considering whether the color was inside or outside of the dress, whether it was part of the bodys form or part of the outer wrapping.
He used a variety of color schemesmonochromatic, complementary, analogous, or warm with cool, sometimes interspersed with a neutral. Rug designer Wilhelm von Bezold discovered another color interaction, which is now called the Bezold Effect. In rug designs using a few colors, he found that by changing just one, he created a completely different visual product.
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